Zhou Pingping, professor of philosophy at Tongji University, delivered a presentation entitled "Christians and Business in Contemporary China" at a recent academic meeting, introducing recent research findings concerning the contemporary Christian entrepreneurs in China.
Organized by the Journal of Research for Christianity in China (JRCC) editorial team on May 17, the virtual event featured presentations from 15 scholars affiliated with the journal, structured across three thematic sessions: society, history, and theological philosophy. Each session will include comments and Q&A segments, encouraging scholarly interaction.
Professor Zhou, whose research field centers on the history of the church in China and the history of cultural exchanges between China and the West, began by outlining the historical context of Christians and the development of contemporary Chinese businesses. In the 19th century, China found itself in a profound crisis due to foreign invasions and the pressures of a semi-colonial, semi-feudal society. Particularly after the defeat in the Sino-Japanese War, the invasion of foreign powers and their dominance over the Chinese market intensified a widespread sense of national crisis. Intellectuals and national entrepreneurs began questioning the roots of China's decline, gradually recognizing that economic independence was fundamental to achieving national independence.
As a result, a significant group of national entrepreneurs emerged, driven by the ambition to rejuvenate the country through industrialization. Among them were numerous Christian entrepreneurs who maintained complex connections with the West. "These Christian entrepreneurs were primarily based in trading hubs such as Shanghai, Tianjin, and Wuhan. Some had backgrounds as compradors or financiers. At that time, China was undergoing rapid social transformation, which created new opportunities for these entrepreneurs to rise. They established modern industries and commercial enterprises, introduced Western culture, science, and technology, and engaged in philanthropic activities. In doing so, they played a notable role in advancing China's early modernization."
The speaker noted that this distinct "community" of Christian entrepreneurs during that period were characterized by their adherence to what was considered a "foreign religion," and many of them had previously served as compradors for foreign entities. Consequently, they were often subject to ridicule from their contemporaries in Chinese society. "However, to this day, academic circles remain divided in their assessments of these individuals."
Some argue that Christian entrepreneurs operated within clear limitations. Their ties to foreign merchants were marked by a mix of cooperation and a desire to transcend that dependence. Nevertheless, in competition with foreign companies, these entrepreneurs were, indisputably, the weaker party, confronting a significant disparity in power and resources. Efforts to modernize China through industrial ventures ultimately proved insufficient to address the country's widespread poverty and backwardness.
"Yet, it is important not to overlook their substantial contributions to China's early modernization."
The speaker highlighted eight Christian entrepreneurs, including five Protestants and three Catholics. She introduced that Ma Yingbiao (1864-1944) was the founder of China's first modern department store, The Sincere & Co. Ltd. The "Two Songs" were recognized as central figures in Tianjin's efforts at contemporary entrepreneurship aimed at national salvation. Among them, Song Zejiu (1867-1956) earned the title of "standard-bearer of national products" in Tianjin and made a lasting contribution to the city's industrial development. The other, Song Feiqing (1890-1956), established the Oriental Wool Manufacturers. Liu Ziru (1870-1948) served as a model of modern entrepreneurship in Chongqing. Wu Baixiang (1879-1966) opened several department stores in Harbin and became a prominent businessman well-known among older generations in that city.
The three Catholics included Zhu Zhiyao (1863-1955), grandson of the modern educator Ma Xiangbo, was regarded as a "giant of modern industry." He was notably influential in shipbuilding and played a pioneering role in the shipping sector. Lu Bohong (1875-1937) was recognized as an industrial and commercial leader and was also active in philanthropy. Upon founding the Chinese Tramways Company, he was recognized as "the first Chinese ever to operate the tramway independently." In Hankou, land magnate Liu Xinsheng (1857-1941) once stated to Li Yuanhong, the second president of the Republic of China, "The Governor founded the Republic of China, and I founded Hankou." Liu made an enduring impact on the urban planning of Hankou.
"Most of these Christian entrepreneurs were born during the Self-Strengthening Movement (also called the Westernization Movement). They personally witnessed the incompetence and timidity of the Qing government, and in response, actively introduced Western culture, science, and technology, thereby establishing modern enterprises," Professor Zhou noted.
She emphasized that these individuals were actively engaged in philanthropy and social reform, founding hospitals, schools, and other institutions. One particularly significant contribution from this group was the development of a distinctive corporate culture. As she noted, "This is precisely what sets Christian entrepreneurs apart from their contemporaries." The speaker further indicated that this unique culture was closely related to their religious faith, given that a central tenet of Christianity is the promotion of "community spirit." One significant aspect of the Christian ethos is the advocacy of "community spirit": individuals are encouraged to unite, form groups, and utilize collective strength to support the vulnerable and serve society. Through these social activities, more individuals are introduced to Christianity, thereby expanding the community.
For instance, at Oriental Wool Manufacturers, founded by Mr. Song Weiqing, there was a prominent chimney marked with Chinese Song font bearing the phrases, "Do not do unto others what you would not have them do unto you," and "Treat others as you would like others to treat you." In addition, a large banner with the words "Military Discipline, Christian Spirit" was displayed in both Chinese and English on a highly visible wall within the company's dining hall.
Professor Zhou remarked, "These Christian concepts of social service were shaped by the influence of traditional Chinese culture, while also integrating some of the more notable elements from Western culture, and ultimately manifested through the lived practice of the Christian faith."
She further reflected, "Many Christian entrepreneurs had prior experience interacting with foreigners, with some having served as compradors. Their rise in entrepreneurship corresponded both to the imperialist demand for local agents and to China's urgent need for development. Consequently, they played a significant role in advancing national industry and commerce in modern China."
She continued, "As members of the elite, these Christian entrepreneurs possessed a sense of social responsibility and concern for the public good. Their religious beliefs significantly influenced their approach to national salvation through industrial development, as well as their charitable activity. They blended their business expertise with religious fervor, embodying Christian principles in their philanthropy. Nonetheless, as entrepreneurs who were former compradors and financiers, they faced dual pressure from imperialist and bureaucratic interests of the old China. Following the establishment of New China, the public-private partnerships of the 1950s marked yet another critical decision point in their lives."
"The trajectory of these Christian entrepreneurs, in effect, mirrors the broader transformations observed in modern Chinese society," she concluded.
Originally from the Christian Times
- Edited by Karen Luo, translated by Joyce Leung
